National Law Universities (NLUs) are the premier law schools in India and are seen as flagbearers of legal education. Currently, there are 26 NLUs in India. There is an off-campus of GNLU Gandhinagar known as GNLU Silvassa. RPNLU Prayagaraj is the latest entry in the list of NLUs in India, which started accepting admissions into BA LLB based on CLAT scores. The NLUs represent the second-generation reforms in legal education. The National Law School of India University (NLSIU) Bengaluru was the first NLU in India, established under the National Law School of India Act (Karnataka Act 22 of 1986).
This Story also Contains
Law Courses Offered by Top NLUs in India
Entrance Exams for NLUs
Admission to NLUs through CLAT
Admission to NLU Delhi through AILET
NLUs Admission - Eligibility Criteria
AILET Vs CLAT - A comparison
List of NLUs
Out of 26 NLUs, 24 offer admissions through the Common Law Admission Test. NLU Delhi conducts its admission based on the All India Law Entrance Test. For NLU Meghalaya admissions, the university conducts its own entrance exam. CNLU Patna conducts its separate admission test for the LLM programme. Although RPNLU Prayagraj uses CLAT scores for its admission, it is not part of the centralised admission and counselling.
Almost all national law universities (NLUs) offer integrated LLB, LLM and PhD programmes. Some of the NLUs also offer various certification programmes. NLSIU Bengaluru and NLUO Cuttack are the only NLUs to offer a 3-year LLB programme for students who have completed their graduation. NLSIU Bengaluru offers admission to 3-year LLB through the National Law School Admission Test (NLSAT) which is conducted online. In this article, students can get the full list of NLUs along with various other related details, including law courses, admission process, seats, entrance exam, and cutoffs for NLUs.
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The full form of NLU stands for National Law University. These universities were established to provide legal education in India on par with global standards. They are no less in status than IIMs and IITs are for management and engineering, respectively. Currently, there are 26 NLUs in the country. Read on to find out the list of NLUs in India rank-wise.
Top NLUs in India
NLU ranking is an important factor for candidates when deciding on their preferred institute. The Ministry of Education (MoE) publishes the NIRF law rankings every year. The top four NLUs in the NIRF rankings remain the same as last year. NLSIU Bengaluru is the best NLU in India that occupies the top spot in NIRF law rankings.
National Law Universities Seat Intake (Including NRI/FN/Supernumerary seats)
The national law universities offer 5-year integrated LLB, 3-year LLB, LLM and PhD courses. Candidates may check the list of law programmes offered by NLUs below.
The NLU admission process consists of the candidates first appearing for a law entrance exam. Shortlisted candidates are then required to attend the counselling and seat allotment process. The steps in the NLU admissions are given below.
Complete the registration for the entrance exam
Appear for the exam and obtain a valid score
Register for the counselling process
Publication of merit list by the NLU/ Consortium
Complete admission formalities such as document verification and payment of admission fee
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There are two law entrance exams for admission to national law universities (NLUs). The first one is the Common Law Admission Test (CLAT) organised by the Consortium of National Law Universities (NLUs). It is a common entrance exam for admission to 23 national law universities (NLUs). The second is the All India Law Entrance Test (AILET) of the National Law University Delhi. It is important to note here that NLU Delhi is not a member NLU of the CLAT Consortium, so the CLAT scores are not accepted by it. NLU Meghalaya also conducts its exams namely MEG UAT and MEG PAT for its UG and PG admissions respectively.
CNLU Patna also conducts a separate admission test for the LLM programme. The university’s UG programme is offered through CLAT.
The Common Law Admission Test or CLAT is one of the most popular law entrance tests. It is conducted offline, in pen and paper format, across the country. The application form for CLAT is typically released in July and the entrance exam is conducted in the first or second week of December. The consortium tries to complete its admission process before May. The first week of August is the time when most of the NLUs commence their classes.
The NLU Delhi’s entrance examination, AILET, is also an offline-based examination conducted across the country. The application form of AILET is released for BA LLB, LLM and PhD programmes, around August. The exam is conducted in December and the classes start in the first week of August.
Name of NLU
Entrance Exam
Consortium NLUs
CLAT
NLU Delhi
AILET
NLUs Admission - Eligibility Criteria
The eligibility criteria for admission to law programmes are the same across all 22 national law universities under the CLAT Consortium. NLU Delhi specified its eligibility criteria separately in its admission notification. Even though the basic eligibility criteria remain the same for admission across NLUs. Here are the details of NLU's eligibility criteria.
NLUs admission eligibility criteria
Criteria
Details
Educational qualification
Integrated LLB - Class 12 or equivalent
LLM - LLB degree (3-year or integrated LLB)
Minimum marks required in qualifying exam
Integrated LLB - 45% (40% in case of SC/ST candidates)
One can find many similarities and differences in CLAT vs AILET comparison. CLAT is essentially a comprehension-based test designed to examine the reading and critical thinking skills of the aspirant. AILET on the other hand is a mix of both comprehension and non-comprehension-based questions. Here is a brief analysis of these two NLU entrance exams.
CLAT and AILET - An overview of the pattern
Category
CLAT
AILET
Duration
2 hours
2 hours
Mode
Offline mode
Offline mode
Type of Questions
Multiple Type Questions (MCQs)
Questions will be asked from given passages
Multiple Type Questions (MCQs)
Comprehension-based questions will be given in English and Legal aptitude sections
Number of Questions
CLAT UG - 120 MCQs
CLAT PG - 120 questions
AILET BA LLB/LLM - 150
Total Marks
UG - 120 marks
PG - 120 marks
AILET BA LLB/LLM - 150
Marking scheme
Each question will carry 1 mark. 0.25 marks to be deducted for an incorrect answer.
Each question will carry 1 mark. 0.25 marks to be deducted for an incorrect answer.
CLAT vs AILET - Comparison of syllabus and test structure
The syllabus of the AILET and CLAT exams are more or less the same. Both entrance tests are known for testing the necessary skills required for pursuing law. However, there are some differences between CLAT and AILET as well. For example, AILET has a test structure based on both comprehension-based questions as well as simple objective questions. In CLAT, however, almost the entire test paper will be based on comprehension-based passages of 300-450 words, making it a lengthy paper. Candidates may check the details of the CLAT and AILET test structure below.
CLAT Vs AILET: Syllabus and Test structure
Particulars
CLAT
AILET
Mode of exam
Offline
Offline
Duration
2 hours
2 hours
Sections
English, Legal Reasoning, Logical Reasoning,
English, Current Affairs, GK
Type of questions
MCQs
No. of questons
120
150
Marks
120
150
Marking scheme
1 mark per question 0.25 negative marks for every wrong answer
1 mark per question 0.25 negative marks for every wrong answer
For undergraduate law programmes, the annual fees of NLUs range from 1.5 lakh per annum to 2.62 lakh per annum. While, in the case of LLM programmes, the annual fees range from 1.13 lakh to 1.89 lakh. In top-ranked NLUs, the annual fees tend to be higher due to the various facilities offered by them in addition to regular classes. Candidates may check the details of NLU fee structure from the quick links given below.
Q: How many National Law Universities in India are in India
A:
At present, there are 26 national law universities in India.
Q: How can I get admission to the top National Law Universities in India?
A:
Admissions to NLUs are offered through entrance tests. You can appear in Common Law Admission Test which is accepted by 24 NLUs. Or, you can also appear in All India Law Entrance Test (AILET) for admission to National Law University Delhi. NLU Meghalaya conducts MEG UAT and MEG PAT for its UG and PG admissions.
Q: Which is the best NLU in India and What rank is required for NLSIU Bangalore?
A:
According to NIRF ranking by the Government of India, NLSIU, Bangalore is the top law school in India. It is followed by NLU Delhi, NALSAR Hyderabad, WBNUJS Kolkata in the ranking list.
Q: What are the law programmes offered by national law universities in India?
A:
The NLUs offer 3-year LLB, 5-year LLB, LLM, PG Diploma courses, PhD in Law, and several other programmes.
Q: Which are the top 10 NLUs in India?
A:
The top 10 NLUs in India are NLSIU Bengaluru, NLU Delhi, NALSAR Hyderabad, WBNUJS Kolkata, GNLU Gandhinagar, NLIU Bhopal, RGNLU Patiala, RMLNLU Lucknow and NUSRL Ranchi and NLUJA Assam.
Q: Which are the top 5 NLUs in India?
A:
NLSIU Bengaluru, NLU Delhi, NALSAR Hyderabad, WBNUJS Kolkata and GNLU Gandhinagar are the top 5 NLUs in India.
Q: Which NLU has highest fees?
A:
NLSIU Bengaluru has the highest fees.
Q: Is NLU a private or government college?
A:
NLUs are government institutions.
Q: Why NLU fees are so high?
A:
National Law Universities are self-financing institutes which are not funded by the government. This makes them to charge high fees to provide better infrastructure and learning facilities.
Most law colleges require entrance exams like
CLAT
or state-level law entrance tests. Some private universities may offer direct admission. Visit the official website of the college, fill out the application form, upload required documents, pay the fee, and complete counselling if required.
With a CLAT rank of 5600, it is challenging for an outside-Delhi candidate to secure a seat at
VIPS (Vivekananda Institute of Professional Studies)
, especially in the General category, since cutoffs for candidates from outside Delhi are generally higher for top law programmes.
Read the passage carefully and answer the question
The Contract should be performed by the promisor himself. However, in certain cases, it can also be performed by his agents or legal representatives. It all depends upon the intention of the parties. Normally a contract can be performed by the following persons.
Promisor himself: If from the nature of the contract it appears that it was the intention of the parties that the promise should be performed by the promisor himself, such promise must be performed by the promisor. This usually applies to contracts involving personal skill, task, or artwork.
Promisor or his Agent: Where the contract does not involve the personal skill of the promisor, the contract could be performed by the promisor himself or by any competent person employed by him for the purpose,
Legal Representatives: The contracts which do not involve any personal skill or taste, may be performed by his legal representative after the death of the promisor.
Third Person: In some cases, a contract may be performed by a third person provided the promisee accepts the arrangement. According to Section 41 of the Indian Contract Act, once the promisee accepts the performance from a third person, he cannot compel the promisor to perform the contract again.
Performance of Joint Promises: According to section 42 of the Indian Contract Act, when two or more persons have made a joint promise, the joint promisors must fulfill the promise jointly during their lifetime. And if any one of them dies, then his legal representatives and survivors must jointly fulfill the promise.
Section 43 of the Indian Contract Act further provides that unless a contrary intention appears from the contract, each joint promisor may compel every other joint promisor to contribute equally to the performance of the promise. If any joint promisor makes a default in such contribution, the remaining joint promisors must bear the loss arising from such default in equal shares.
Question:
Aman received a box of chocolates from Basant and promised to pay Rupees 5000. Later on, A becomes bankrupt. Chetan who is a friend of Aman pays rupees 1000 to Besant on behalf of Aman. Aman is not aware of such a transaction. In civil court, insolvency proceedings have started against Aman. Meanwhile, Basant has also applied for a recovery of 5000 rupees. Decide.
Option: 1
Basant is entitled to recover the amount of 5000 from Aman.
Option: 2
Basant is entitled to recover the amount of 4000 from Aman.
Option: 3
Chetan is entitled to recover the amount of 1000 from Basant.
Option: 4
Basant cannot recover any amount from Aman as he has become insolvent.
Read the passage carefully and answer the question
The Contract should be performed by the promisor himself. However, in certain cases, it can also be performed by his agents or legal representatives. It all depends upon the intention of the parties. Normally a contract can be performed by the following persons.
Promisor himself: If from the nature of the contract it appears that it was the intention of the parties that the promise should be performed by the promisor himself, such promise must be performed by the promisor. This usually applies to contracts involving personal skill, task, or artwork.
Promisor or his Agent: Where the contract does not involve the personal skill of the promisor, the contract could be performed by the promisor himself or by any competent person employed by him for the purpose,
Legal Representatives: The contracts which do not involve any personal skill or taste, may be performed by his legal representative after the death of the promisor.
Third Person: In some cases, a contract may be performed by a third person provided the promisee accepts the arrangement. According to Section 41 of the Indian Contract Act, once the promisee accepts the performance from a third person, he cannot compel the promisor to perform the contract again.
Performance of Joint Promises: According to section 42 of the Indian Contract Act, when two or more persons have made a joint promise, the joint promisors must fulfill the promise jointly during their lifetime. And if any one of them dies, then his legal representatives and survivors must jointly fulfill the promise.
Section 43 of the Indian Contract Act further provides that unless a contrary intention appears from the contract, each joint promisor may compel every other joint promisor to contribute equally to the performance of the promise. If any joint promisor makes a default in such contribution, the remaining joint promisors must bear the loss arising from such default in equal shares.
Question:
K promises to paint a picture for L on a certain day, at a certain price. K dies before the day of the contract. Decide.
Option: 1
The contract can be enforced by K’s representative
Option: 2
The contract can be enforced by L
Option: 3
The contract can be enforced either by K’s representation or by L
Option: 4
The contract cannot be enforced either by K’s representative, or L
Read the passage carefully and answer the question
The Contract should be performed by the promisor himself. However, in certain cases, it can also be performed by his agents or legal representatives. It all depends upon the intention of the parties. Normally a contract can be performed by the following persons.
Promisor himself: If from the nature of the contract it appears that it was the intention of the parties that the promise should be performed by the promisor himself, such promise must be performed by the promisor. This usually applies to contracts involving personal skill, task, or artwork.
Promisor or his Agent: Where the contract does not involve the personal skill of the promisor, the contract could be performed by the promisor himself or by any competent person employed by him for the purpose,
Legal Representatives: The contracts which do not involve any personal skill or taste, may be performed by his legal representative after the death of the promisor.
Third Person: In some cases, a contract may be performed by a third person provided the promisee accepts the arrangement. According to Section 41 of the Indian Contract Act, once the promisee accepts the performance from a third person, he cannot compel the promisor to perform the contract again.
Performance of Joint Promises: According to section 42 of the Indian Contract Act, when two or more persons have made a joint promise, the joint promisors must fulfill the promise jointly during their lifetime. And if any one of them dies, then his legal representatives and survivors must jointly fulfill the promise.
Section 43 of the Indian Contract Act further provides that unless a contrary intention appears from the contract, each joint promisor may compel every other joint promisor to contribute equally to the performance of the promise. If any joint promisor makes a default in such contribution, the remaining joint promisors must bear the loss arising from such default in equal shares.
Question:
Rohan has agreed to manage the catering services during the marriage of Sohan’s son Ramu. On the day of marriage, Rohan felt ill and sent his manager to the management of catering services. Ramu happily gets married to Tina and people appreciated the food and decoration of the event. When Rohan asked Sohan for the remaining amount, he denied it because Rohan himself had not managed so it is a breach. Decide.
Option: 1
Rohan is not entitled to get the remaining amount due to a breach of contract.
Option: 2
Rohan is entitled to sue Sohan for the remaining amount.
Option: 3
Rohan is entitled to sue Ramu because it was his marriage.
Option: 4
Instead of Rohan, his manager can only sue Sohan for the breach.
Read the passage and answer the question that follow.
Natural justice is another name for common sense justice rules of natural justice are not in codified form these principles are embedded or ingrained or inbuilt in the conscience of human beings. It supplies the omission made in codified law and helps in the administration of justice. Natural justice is not only confined to ‘fairness’ it will take many shades and colours based on the context. Thus natural justice apart from ‘fairness’ also implies reasonableness, equity and equality. They are neither cast in a rigid mould nor can they be put in a legal straitjacket. These principles written by nature in the heart of mankind, they are immutable, inviolable, and inalienable.
It is true that the concept of natural justice is not very clear and, therefore, it is not possible to define it; yet the principles of natural justice are accepted and enforced. In the case of Ridge V. Baldwin Court observed that “in modern times have sometimes been expressed to the effect that natural justice is as vague as to be practically meaningless. But I would regard these as tainted by the perennial fallacy that because something cannot be cut and dried or nicely weighed or measured therefore it does not exist”. The term natural justice signifies fundamental rules of judicial procedure and fair play in action. According to Lord Widgery “the principles of natural justice were those fundamental rules; the breach will prevent justice from being seen to be done”. Earliest expression of ‘natural justice’ could be found in the philosophical expression of Roman Jurist (jus natural) and signified rules and principles for the conduct of man which were independent of enacted law or customs and could be discovered by the rational intelligence of man and would grow out of and conform to his nature.
The rule against bias that surfaced in 1610 in Dr Bonham's Casewhere Chief Justice Coke went so far as to say that the Court could declare an Act of Parliament void if it made a man as judge in his own cause, or otherwise ‘against common right and reason’. This was one of his grounds for disallowing the claim of the College of Physicians to fine and imprison Doctor Bonham, a Doctor of Physics of Cambridge University, for practising in the city of London without the licence of College of Physicians. The statute under which the College acted provided that fines should go half to the King half to the College so that the College had a financial interest in its own judgement and was judged in its own cause.
Question:
X is a student of a college and his father Y is a professor in the same college. In one instance, X is caught to be involved in unparliamentary activities inside the college campus. The enquiry committee is set up and Y is appointed as the head of the committee. Decide.
Option: 1
Y is a professor of the same college hence he can become a member of the enquiry committee
Option: 2
Y is X’s father hence he should not be a part of the enquiry committee
Option: 3
Y can be a part of the enquiry committee but cannot be its head
Option: 4
There is no rule that prevents the appointment of Y until he fulfils his function diligently
Read the passage and answer the question that follow.
Natural justice is another name for common sense justice rules of natural justice are not in codified form these principles are embedded or ingrained or inbuilt in the conscience of human beings. It supplies the omission made in codified law and helps in the administration of justice. Natural justice is not only confined to ‘fairness’ it will take many shades and colours based on the context. Thus natural justice apart from ‘fairness’ also implies reasonableness, equity and equality. They are neither cast in a rigid mould nor can they be put in a legal straitjacket. These principles written by nature in the heart of mankind, they are immutable, inviolable, and inalienable.
It is true that the concept of natural justice is not very clear and, therefore, it is not possible to define it; yet the principles of natural justice are accepted and enforced. In the case of Ridge V. Baldwin Court observed that “in modern times have sometimes been expressed to the effect that natural justice is as vague as to be practically meaningless. But I would regard these as tainted by the perennial fallacy that because something cannot be cut and dried or nicely weighed or measured therefore it does not exist”. The term natural justice signifies fundamental rules of judicial procedure and fair play in action. According to Lord Widgery “the principles of natural justice were those fundamental rules; the breach will prevent justice from being seen to be done”. Earliest expression of ‘natural justice’ could be found in the philosophical expression of Roman Jurist (jus natural) and signified rules and principles for the conduct of man which were independent of enacted law or customs and could be discovered by the rational intelligence of man and would grow out of and conform to his nature.
The rule against bias that surfaced in 1610 in Dr Bonham's Casewhere Chief Justice Coke went so far as to say that the Court could declare an Act of Parliament void if it made a man as judge in his own cause, or otherwise ‘against common right and reason’. This was one of his grounds for disallowing the claim of the College of Physicians to fine and imprison Doctor Bonham, a Doctor of Physics of Cambridge University, for practising in the city of London without the licence of College of Physicians. The statute under which the College acted provided that fines should go half to the King half to the College so that the College had a financial interest in its own judgement and was judged in its own cause.
Question:
Mr X is an employee of a corporate office. His wife Y is a judge. In one instance, X is found to be involved in a money laundering case at his office. The office now files a suit and Y is appointed as the judge for this case. Decide.
Option: 1
Y is a judge by herself, hence can be appointed to adjudicate this case
Option: 2
Y is can be appointed as a judge only if she fulfils her responsibilities without any bias
Option: 3
Y can adjudicate the case and if the company finds the penalty to be insufficient then they can appeal against it
Read the passage and answer the question that follow.
Natural justice is another name for common sense justice rules of natural justice are not in codified form these principles are embedded or ingrained or inbuilt in the conscience of human beings. It supplies the omission made in codified law and helps in the administration of justice. Natural justice is not only confined to ‘fairness’ it will take many shades and colours based on the context. Thus natural justice apart from ‘fairness’ also implies reasonableness, equity and equality. They are neither cast in a rigid mould nor can they be put in a legal straitjacket. These principles written by nature in the heart of mankind, they are immutable, inviolable, and inalienable.
It is true that the concept of natural justice is not very clear and, therefore, it is not possible to define it; yet the principles of natural justice are accepted and enforced. In the case of Ridge V. Baldwin Court observed that “in modern times have sometimes been expressed to the effect that natural justice is as vague as to be practically meaningless. But I would regard these as tainted by the perennial fallacy that because something cannot be cut and dried or nicely weighed or measured therefore it does not exist”. The term natural justice signifies fundamental rules of judicial procedure and fair play in action. According to Lord Widgery “the principles of natural justice were those fundamental rules; the breach will prevent justice from being seen to be done”. Earliest expression of ‘natural justice’ could be found in the philosophical expression of Roman Jurist (jus natural) and signified rules and principles for the conduct of man which were independent of enacted law or customs and could be discovered by the rational intelligence of man and would grow out of and conform to his nature.
The rule against bias that surfaced in 1610 in Dr Bonham's Casewhere Chief Justice Coke went so far as to say that the Court could declare an Act of Parliament void if it made a man as judge in his own cause, or otherwise ‘against common right and reason’. This was one of his grounds for disallowing the claim of the College of Physicians to fine and imprison Doctor Bonham, a Doctor of Physics of Cambridge University, for practising in the city of London without the licence of College of Physicians. The statute under which the College acted provided that fines should go half to the King half to the College so that the College had a financial interest in its own judgement and was judged in its own cause.
Question:
X was a renowned cricketer in the 1980s. His son Y is a struggling cricketer who has been trying to get into the national team for many years. In the year 2020, X is appointed as a member of the selection committee. In the match which is supposed to decide the final team of the nation, Y scores a century and Z scores 65 runs. However, Z is selected to represent India and Y is not. Y now appeals against the decision, the main ground being the presence of X in the committee. Decide.
Option: 1
The appeal will stand as Y scored a century yet Z was selected after scoring 65 runs
Option: 2
The appeal will be quashed since X’s presence should have benefitted Y, but it didn’t, hence the rejection of Y is valid
Option: 3
The appeal will stand as X’s presence is a factor of bias
Option: 4
The appeal will be quashed since X was a renowned cricketer
Read the passage and answer the question that follow.
Natural justice is another name for common sense justice rules of natural justice are not in codified form these principles are embedded or ingrained or inbuilt in the conscience of human beings. It supplies the omission made in codified law and helps in the administration of justice. Natural justice is not only confined to ‘fairness’ it will take many shades and colours based on the context. Thus natural justice apart from ‘fairness’ also implies reasonableness, equity and equality. They are neither cast in a rigid mould nor can they be put in a legal straitjacket. These principles written by nature in the heart of mankind, they are immutable, inviolable, and inalienable.
It is true that the concept of natural justice is not very clear and, therefore, it is not possible to define it; yet the principles of natural justice are accepted and enforced. In the case of Ridge V. Baldwin Court observed that “in modern times have sometimes been expressed to the effect that natural justice is as vague as to be practically meaningless. But I would regard these as tainted by the perennial fallacy that because something cannot be cut and dried or nicely weighed or measured therefore it does not exist”. The term natural justice signifies fundamental rules of judicial procedure and fair play in action. According to Lord Widgery “the principles of natural justice were those fundamental rules; the breach will prevent justice from being seen to be done”. Earliest expression of ‘natural justice’ could be found in the philosophical expression of Roman Jurist (jus natural) and signified rules and principles for the conduct of man which were independent of enacted law or customs and could be discovered by the rational intelligence of man and would grow out of and conform to his nature.
The rule against bias that surfaced in 1610 in Dr Bonham's Casewhere Chief Justice Coke went so far as to say that the Court could declare an Act of Parliament void if it made a man as judge in his own cause, or otherwise ‘against common right and reason’. This was one of his grounds for disallowing the claim of the College of Physicians to fine and imprison Doctor Bonham, a Doctor of Physics of Cambridge University, for practising in the city of London without the licence of College of Physicians. The statute under which the College acted provided that fines should go half to the King half to the College so that the College had a financial interest in its own judgement and was judged in its own cause.
Question:
X is a married judge who is well known for his honesty in the entire city. He has a son Y. One fine day Y gets kidnapped and the kidnapper demands a sum of 20 lakhs from X. However, the kidnapper is caught by the police. X is now appointed as the judge for the hearing of the kidnapper. Decide.
Option: 1
X can be the judge since he can decide the punishment better as he was the sufferer
Option: 2
X cannot be the judge since there is a possibility that he will be biased while delivering the judgement
Option: 3
X can be the judge since he is renowned for his honesty and fulfil his duties
Option: 4
X can be the judge but his statement can be appealed against if delivered with bias
Read the passage and answer the question that follow.
Natural justice is another name for common sense justice rules of natural justice are not in codified form these principles are embedded or ingrained or inbuilt in the conscience of human beings. It supplies the omission made in codified law and helps in the administration of justice. Natural justice is not only confined to ‘fairness’ it will take many shades and colours based on the context. Thus natural justice apart from ‘fairness’ also implies reasonableness, equity and equality. They are neither cast in a rigid mould nor can they be put in a legal straitjacket. These principles written by nature in the heart of mankind, they are immutable, inviolable, and inalienable.
It is true that the concept of natural justice is not very clear and, therefore, it is not possible to define it; yet the principles of natural justice are accepted and enforced. In the case of Ridge V. Baldwin Court observed that “in modern times have sometimes been expressed to the effect that natural justice is as vague as to be practically meaningless. But I would regard these as tainted by the perennial fallacy that because something cannot be cut and dried or nicely weighed or measured therefore it does not exist”. The term natural justice signifies fundamental rules of judicial procedure and fair play in action. According to Lord Widgery “the principles of natural justice were those fundamental rules; the breach will prevent justice from being seen to be done”. Earliest expression of ‘natural justice’ could be found in the philosophical expression of Roman Jurist (jus natural) and signified rules and principles for the conduct of man which were independent of enacted law or customs and could be discovered by the rational intelligence of man and would grow out of and conform to his nature.
The rule against bias that surfaced in 1610 in Dr Bonham's Casewhere Chief Justice Coke went so far as to say that the Court could declare an Act of Parliament void if it made a man as judge in his own cause, or otherwise ‘against common right and reason’. This was one of his grounds for disallowing the claim of the College of Physicians to fine and imprison Doctor Bonham, a Doctor of Physics of Cambridge University, for practising in the city of London without the licence of College of Physicians. The statute under which the College acted provided that fines should go half to the King half to the College so that the College had a financial interest in its own judgement and was judged in its own cause.
Question:
X and Y have been married for five years. X is a judge and Y is a doctor. X is pretty much unhappy with his married life so he wants to divorce Y. Y refuses to agree to a divorce by mutual consent hence X files a suit against Y. Decide.
Option: 1
X cannot file a suit since he is a judge
Option: 2
X can file a suit against Y in legal capacity but not as a judge
Option: 3
X cannot file a divorce suit against Y since there is no valid ground for divorce
Option: 4
X can proceed with mutual consent but not contested divorce
Read the passage and answer the question that follow.
In the case of M/S Halonex Limited, 59-A Noida vs State of U.P., it was held that “In reply to the aforesaid submission, learned counsel for opposite party no.2 submitted that the case of the applicants that no amount is due from their side to the complainant is a matter of defence which cannot be considered at this stage. It has been submitted that the term 'entrustment' as used in Section 405 IPC has been given a wider interpretation. It has been submitted that the goods returned by the complainant to the Company for replacement or for reimbursement would be deemed to have been entrusted to the Company and as the applicants 2 & 3 were handling its affair they become responsible. To buttress the said submission, the learned counsel for the complainant drew the attention of the Court to a decision of the Apex Court in the case of Ram Narayan Popli Vs. Central Bureau of Investigation: (2003) 3 SCC 641, wherein it was observed that: "the term "entrustment" is not necessarily a term of law. It may have different implications in different contexts. In its most general signification all it imports is the handing over possession for some purpose which may not imply the conferring of any proprietary right at all." Attention was also drawn to an observation made in the judgment of the aforesaid case, where it was observed that: "to establish the charge of criminal breach of trust, the prosecution is not obliged to prove the precise mode of conversion, misappropriation or misapplication by the accused of the property entrusted to him or over which he has dominion. The principal ingredient of the offence being dishonest misappropriation or conversion which may not ordinarily be a matter of direct proof, entrustment of property and failure in breach of an obligation to account for the property entrusted if proved, may, in the light of other circumstances, justifiably lead to an inference of dishonest misappropriation or conversion”.
Question:
X tracks down an expensive necklace on the road. Not knowing to whom it belongs. X sells it promptly to a jeweller without attempting to find the owner or submitting the necklace to the authorities. Decide the liability of X.
Read the passage and answer the question that follow.
In the case of M/S Halonex Limited, 59-A Noida vs State of U.P., it was held that “In reply to the aforesaid submission, learned counsel for opposite party no.2 submitted that the case of the applicants that no amount is due from their side to the complainant is a matter of defence which cannot be considered at this stage. It has been submitted that the term 'entrustment' as used in Section 405 IPC has been given a wider interpretation. It has been submitted that the goods returned by the complainant to the Company for replacement or for reimbursement would be deemed to have been entrusted to the Company and as the applicants 2 & 3 were handling its affair they become responsible. To buttress the said submission, the learned counsel for the complainant drew the attention of the Court to a decision of the Apex Court in the case of Ram Narayan Popli Vs. Central Bureau of Investigation: (2003) 3 SCC 641, wherein it was observed that: "the term "entrustment" is not necessarily a term of law. It may have different implications in different contexts. In its most general signification all it imports is the handing over possession for some purpose which may not imply the conferring of any proprietary right at all." Attention was also drawn to an observation made in the judgment of the aforesaid case, where it was observed that: "to establish the charge of criminal breach of trust, the prosecution is not obliged to prove the precise mode of conversion, misappropriation or misapplication by the accused of the property entrusted to him or over which he has dominion. The principal ingredient of the offence being dishonest misappropriation or conversion which may not ordinarily be a matter of direct proof, entrustment of property and failure in breach of an obligation to account for the property entrusted if proved, may, in the light of other circumstances, justifiably lead to an inference of dishonest misappropriation or conversion”.
Question:
P borrows from L his phone for using it to call his parents. However, when L is distracted, P removes the memory card of the phone and later on sells it. Decide the liability of P.
Option: 1
P is guilty under dishonest misappropriation of property
Option: 2
P is not guilty for any offence since the phone was given with consent
Option: 3
P is guilty for theft
Option: 4
P has been handed over the phone, so he has the right to use it as he likes
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A lawyer advises clients on legal matters, represents them in court, and drafts legal documents. They work in various fields like criminal, corporate, or family law. Key skills include communication, research, and analytical thinking. To become a lawyer in India, one must complete a law degree, clear entrance exams, register with the Bar Council, and pass the All India Bar Examination.
A civil lawyer handles non-criminal legal disputes like family, property, and contract issues. They represent clients in court, draft documents, and advise on legal rights. To practice in India, one needs an LLB degree and Bar Council enrollment. Civil lawyers work in firms, government, or independently, with growing demand across various specialisations.
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A criminal lawyer defends individuals or organisations accused of crimes, ensuring fair trial and legal rights. They analyse cases, represent clients in court, conduct legal research, and negotiate plea deals. Strong communication, analytical, and ethical skills are essential. After earning a law degree, gaining experience, and registering with a Bar Council, they can practise independently or with law firms.
Family lawyers are required to assist a client in resolving any family-related problem. In general, family lawyers operate as mediators between family members when conflicts arise. Individuals who opt for a career as Family Lawyer is charged with drafting prenuptial agreements to protect someone's financial interests prior to marriage, consulting on grounds for impeachment or civil union separation, and drafting separation agreements.
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An immigration lawyer is responsible for representing the individuals (clients) involved in the immigration process that includes legal, and illegal citizens and refugees who want to reside in the country, start a business or get employment.
A Government Lawyer represents the government in legal matters, provides legal advice to officials, drafts legislation, and prosecutes or defends cases. The role requires strong research, communication, and analytical skills. To pursue this career, one must obtain an LLB, pass the Bar Exam, gain court experience, and apply for government positions. Career progression includes roles from junior to senior government lawyer.
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